References

Adams, Laurie. 2001. Italian Renaissance Art. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.

Anderson, Liselotte. 1969. Baroque and Rococo Art. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.

"The Church of the 'Immacolata Concezione'". 2006. trans. Lomar Ronald Lacy. Pamphlet from the Church of the Immacolata Concezione.

MacCulloch, Diarmaid. 2003. The Reformation: A History. New York: Penguin Books.

Nussdorfer, Laurie. 1984. City Politics in Baroque Rome, 1623-1644. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Nussdorfer, Laurie. 1992. Civic Politics in the Rome of Urban VIII. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Schloder, John E. 1984. Baroque Imagery. Cleveland: Indiana University Press.

Sewter, A.C. 1972. Baroque and Rococo. London: Thames and Hudson LTD.

Stinger, Charles L. 1998. The Renaissance in Rome. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.

Tapie', Victor-L. 1966. The Age of Grandeur: Baroque Art and Architecture. New York: Frederick A Praeger Publishers.

Altarpiece in Il Gesu'

Interior art and architecture of Il Gesu' exhibits the ideas and doctrines that were confirmed by the Council of Trent. During the second council the doctrine of transubstantiation was debated and eventually accepted by the Church. Transubstantiation, a doctrine widely refuted by the emerging Protestant church, is the belief that the elements in the Eucharist are converted to the body and blood of Christ at their consecration. Counter Reformation architecture began to incorporate transubstantiation into the designs.

Il Gesu', the model for countless Jesuit churches exemplifies how Counter Reformation architecture displayed this Church doctrine. The Eucharist, one of the seven sacraments established at the Council of Trent, occurs during the celebration of the mass at the altar. Il Gesu' was built between 1568 and 1584, the height of the implementation of church reform as decided by the Council. when a visitor enters the church the side chapels are closed off architecturally and the eyes are immediately drawn down the long nave to the altar. All attention is given to the altar, the place where the sacrament of the Eucharist is carried out and consecrated. The placement and prominence of the altar exemplify the Church's ability to assert their beliefs and doctrine adamantly refuted by Protestants.

The Council desired for architecture to represent the theological doctrines, as well as Biblical stories. The altarpiece at this church is a clear example of the Church, during its reforming years, establishing those doctrines within the architecture to reaffirm their importance in the faith.

Nudity and the Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo was commissioned in 1534 to paint the Last Judgement in the Sistine Chapel on the altar wall. Precursors to the Counter Reformation are present by the images of the martyred saints. Satin. Bartholomew holds a knife in one hand and his flayed skin in the other. Furthermore, Saint Catherine, tortured on a wheel, is seen bent over the very object that killed her. All the saints' bodies that were destroyed in their death regained their flesh in for eternity. Saints, especially martyrdom, was exalted by the Counter Reformation.

However, nudity was strongly looked down up as it symbolized man's fallen nature. Therefore, it represented a threat to his salvation. The Inquisition rejected many works of at due to nudity. They kept a tight control of Church approved art and architecture. After Michelangelo's death in 1564, loin clothes were added covering the inappropriate nudes. This allowed for a pious observer to be sparked into an emotional experience, as desired by the Council in its approved artwork and architecture. Again, emotions being conveyed through the art was a goal of the Council. This would enable those who were unable to read to have a connection to Biblical stories and the emotions behind them.


*Photography is not allowed in the Sistine Chapel so these photographs were pulled from the web.

The Ecstasy Of St. Theresa, 1645

As the Council confirmed the role saints played in the Church, the use of saints in the art and architecture also increased. The Ecstasy of St. Theresa was created by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and is found in the Cornaro Chapel. This chapel is located in Santa maria della Vittoria. This sculpture illustrates several aspects of Counter Reformation architecture: use of saints, different eccesiastical orders, intercession, and dramatic use of lighting.

It was not a new phenomenon for saints to be depicted in artwork. However the sheer number produced during this period depicts the Church's attempts to boldly affirm the place of the saints. St. Theresa had been recently canonized in 1622 from the order of Our lady of Mount Carmel, also known as White Friar. This depiction asserts the use of saints, a division created between Protestants and the Church during the Council of Trent. it was evident that the Church was attempting to garner more support and greater acceptance for it's doctrines from the people. Art and architecture therefore became a form of propaganda, as most people were illiterate.

Bernini's sculpture continues to further the Church's doctrine. The title tells the viewer that this saint was experiencing a moment where the heavenly realm collided with the worldly one, a divine encounter. This shows that Theresa was able to enter into communion with God, therefore was capable of interceding on behalf of those in the world. Intercession was another foundational doctrine that the council exalted.

Although intercession was depicted in Bernini's work, it did not evade the scrutiny of the Inquisition. The Counter Reformation Church used it to monitor all religious art, making sure that if followed the guidelines of the Council. Bernini's work was found to be acceptable by the Inquisition despite questions about it being too sexual in nature.

Another aspect that the sculpture demonstrated was the Council's desire for emotions to be conveyed to the viewer. In Bernini's sculpture lighting from windows from above highlight the Holy Spirit and face of the saint. It helps to highlight the deep and intimate moment. The use of lighting to convey emotions are a specific characteristic of Counter Reformation Architecture and the Baroque Style.

Santa Maria Della Concezione dei Cappuccini

Franciscan Capuchins were a religious order founded in 1529, at the beginning of the Counter Reformation. The formal name for the order is the Friars Minor Capuchin. They became a major force in the vitality of the Church. They became extremely involved in preaching and mission work. Much of their work was in part to recapture and revive Catholicism in areas where Protestantism had gained a foothold. They emphasized the basic doctrines that were uprooted by Luther and other reformers. the religious order backed the new power garnered by the papacy at the Council.

The church itself was the first church in Rome to be dedicated to "God in honor of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary". Keeping with other Capuchin style, the church has a single nave with side chapels that are closed off by wooden gates. Along the floor of the church there are several tombstones that announce the tombs of cardinals who desired to be buried in this church out of devotion to the immaculate Conception, as well as the Capuchins. This exalts the beliefs of the Church. It affirmed the strong belief in orders and the use of orders within the faith, as decided by the Council.

However, the church is not what draws visitors to this attraction; the cemetery of the church draws the most attention. For more than two centuries, starting in the 1500s, bones from deceased Capuchin friars were used to create ornate decorations. It extols the friars for their work within the Church, their efforts to revive the Catholic church and its beliefs as asserted by the Council of Trent. It also follows the ornate style that the Catholic Church took on after the Council in order to counter the Protestant doings. Over four thousand friars allowed their bones to be used in the decorations of the walls, ceilings, and niches. Hundreds of skulls form wall decorations while femurs and other body parts form artwork on the walls and ceilings. Other body parts were used to create chandeliers. Their bones remind visitors that death looms while the thousands of bones are a representation of the style that the Church chose to follow after the Council, again another way to react to the Protestant movement.

*Photography is not allowed in the cemetery so these photographs were pulled from the web.

Chiesa Nuova

The Counter Reformation was very much about tit for tat. If the emerging Protestant church did one thing, the Catholic church did the exact opposite, thus creating a clear divide. Chiesa Nuova, formally known as Santa Maria in Vallicella, is an example of this reaction. While Protestant churches were bare and whitewashed, Catholic churches countered with elaborate and monumental artwork within the architecture. Ornate frescoes and a gold mine of Rubens over the altar can be found at this church. Most of the pieces depict different aspects of Mary's life and involvement in the church at the time.

In twenty years Pietro Berrettini created ornate frescoes of the ceilings and nave. This was typical during the Catholic reformation, as it did the opposite of the Protestant churches. Thses would show the importance of Mary in a religious life. Berrettini's frescoes include St. Philip's Vision of our Lady and the Falling Beam. This is a fresco where the Virgin told him to replace a rotting beam, thus preserving the building. Other frescoes include the Assumption of the Virgin Mary and the Trinity in Glory. Again, the use of Mary in more art depicts the level of importance that the Church wanted to display as a result of the Council. This would assert the Church's doctrines as truth over the Protestant doctrines.

The increased presence of Mary in Chiesa Nuova does not end with the frescoes. there are also chaples that portray the Visitation and Assumption of Mary. The Presentation of the Virgin may be found in the left transept. Mary is a repeated theme throughout this Counter Reformation Church. The church was built from 1575 and completed in 1605, the height of the reforms. It was dedicated to the Virgin and remains so today. The desire of the Church to assert its doctrines is made evident by Chiesa Nuova and her presentation of the Virgin Mary.

Marian Column in Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore

Most Marian columns are built in honor of the Virgin Mary. They are often erected in thanksgiving for help from the plague and other hardships.

After the Council of Trent the erection of columns became popular during the Catholic Reformation and are considered a prominent feature of Baroque architecture.

The column in the Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore is one of the first in Rome. In 1614, an ancient column was transported to the piazza and adorned with a bronze statue of the Virgin and Child. Again, this asserts one of the goals of the architecture. The Church wanted to exhibit it's power and wealth. In this case, it did so by placing a bronze statue on top of the ancient column. Bronze was the most expensive material, thus using it showed the power and strength of the Church.

It also asserts the decisions from the Council of Trent, shaping the Counter Reformation. As Mary came to symbolize the Church's struggle, it is fitting that this column was erected out of thanksgiving for saving Rome from another plague outbreak. In the years of fear, especially the fear of the plague, Romans turned to the Madonna for safeguarding. Whether the struggle was against Protestants or the Plague, the Virgin symbolized protection and was asserted as the one to turn to when in need. Thus, a statue honoring her protection was appropriate.

Furthermore, the column is in a piazza just outside Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. When the main doors of the church are open, the column dedicated to the Virgin and child is centered in view. Thus, it highlights the importance of Mary, a central figure in a believer's life, according to the Council.

What is the Counter Reformation?

The Counter Reformation is the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation. It is also known as the Catholic Reformation and was the Church's attempt to expel the heresy begun by Martin Luther and others.

The Council of Trent, 1545- 1563, emphasized the Church's most important doctrines, those being challenged by the Protestant Reformation.

Affirmations from the Council of Trent:

1547-1548

1. Acceptance of the Nicene Creed as the basis of the Catholic faith.
2. Fixed the Canon of the Old and New Testament
3. Set the number of Sacraments at seven. The sacraments include Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony.
4. Defined the nature, as well as consequences, of original sin.
5. Officially condemned Luther's justification by faith.

1551-1552

1. Confirmed transubstantiation
2. Issued degrees on:
A. Episcopal jurisdiction
B. Clerical discipline

1562-1563

1. Defined mass as true sacrifice
2. Issued decrees on the reform and structural centralization of religious orders.
3. Forbade the sale of indulgences
4. Created provisions for training parish clergy

How did the Council Affect Art and Architecture?

1. The Virgin Mary became increasingly associated with the Church and its struggles against the enemy, the Protestant movement. Therefore, Mary is found more prevalently in art and architecture.

A. Marian Column in Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore
B. Chiesa Nuova

2. The Council reasserted the role of saints as examples of excellent Christian life. It also affirmed saints as intercessors to God. This was done as a response to Protestant criticisms. Therefore, art and architecture during this time period saw a dramatic increase in the number of pieces being dedicated to and focused on saints. Many of the saints came from different orders. The Council also reasserted the role of orders, such as the Jesuits, in the Church.

A. Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini
B. The Ecstasy of St. Theresa, 1645

3. The Council also began a strict interpretation of Biblical and certain theological doctrines, such as the glorification of Mary. This strict interpretation was carried through into the art and architecture.

A. Nudity and the Sistine Chapel
B. Altarpiece in Il Gesu'